Pathophysiology and underlying mechanisms in hereditary angioedema.

This review aims to summarize the main pathophysiological events involved in the development of hereditary angioedema (OMIM#106100). Hereditary angioedema is a rare genetic disease inherited in an autosomal dominant manner and caused by a loss of control over the plasma contact system or kallikrein-kinin system, which results in unrestrained bradykinin generation or signaling. In patients with hereditary angioedema, BK binding to endothelial cells leads to recurrent episodes of swelling at subcutaneous or submucosal tissues that can be life threatening when affecting the upper respiratory tract. The disease can either present with hypocomplementemia owing to the presence of pathogenic variants in the gene encoding complement C1 inhibitor (hereditary angioedema with C1-inhibitor deficiency) or present with normocomplementemia and associate with elevated estrogen levels owing to gain-of-function variants in the genes encoding coagulation proteins involved in the kallikrein-kinin system (namely, coagulation FXII [FXII-associated hereditary angioedema], plasminogen [PLG-associated hereditary angioedema], and high-molecular-weight kininogen [KNG1-associated hereditary angioedema]). Moreover, in recent years, novel pathogenic variants have been described in the genes encoding angiopoietin 1 (ANGPT1-associated hereditary angioedema) and myoferlin (MYOF-associated hereditary angioedema), which further expand the pathophysiological picture of hereditary angioedema.

Targeting Delivery of Platelets Inhibitor to Prevent Tumor Metastasis.

Activated platelets have a high affinity for tumor cells, and consequently, they can protect tumor cells from environmental stress and immune attacks. Therefore, preventing platelet-tumor cell interaction can lead to the elimination of circulating tumor cells via natural killer cells and finally metastasis inhibition. It is also shown that CREKA (Cys-Arg-Glu-Lys-Ala), a tumor-homing pentapeptide, targets fibrin-fibronectin complexes that are found on the tumor stroma and the vessel walls. In this study, we linked CREKA to Ticagrelor, a reversible antagonist of the P2Y12 receptor on platelets. In vitro experiments indicated that CREKA-Ticagrelor could not only inhibit the platelet-induced migration of tumor cells with an invasive phenotype but also prevent tumor-platelet interaction. In vivo antitumor and antimetastasis results of this drug showed that CREKA-Ticagrelor could specifically target the tumor tissues within 24 h post intravenous injection and suppress lung metastasis. Meanwhile, by having this antiplatelet drug targeted, its side effects were minimized, and bleeding risk was decreased. Thus, CREKA-Ticagrelor offers an efficient antimetastatic agent.

Co-delivery of curcumin and serratiopeptidase in HeLa and MCF-7 cells through nanoparticles show improved anti-cancer activity.

Curcumin was employed to prepare anticancer nanoparticles (size 175 ±â€¯15 nm) using anti-inflammatory enzyme serratiopeptidase by desolvation method. Here serratiopeptidase acted as a carrier as well as bioactive molecule in the nanoformulations. The Cur-SPD NPs (curcumin loaded serratiopeptidase nanoparticles) were characterized using DLS, FESEM and FTIR. The in vitro release behavior depicted biphasic pattern at 37 °C (pH 7.4) and release of 95% of both molecules occurred in 24 h. Serratiopeptidase not only provided stability to curcumin but also increased its effectiveness against cancer cells. These nanoparticles had anti-cancer activity in MCF-7 and HeLa cell lines as shown by cytotoxicity assay, DAPI nuclear staining, ROS production and DNA damage. The immunomodulatory tests showed that Cur-SPD NPs reduce level of IL-6 but increase TNFα level in THP1 cell lines. Structural similarity of serratiopeptidase to matrix metallo proteases (MMPs), particularly MMP8, have been found (based on low RMSD values) to induce TNFα production and play tumour suppressive role in certain cancers. Thus anti-cancer properties of Cur-SPD NPs may be attributed to synergistic effect of curcumin and serratiopeptidase. Thus results in present investigation provide an insight on role of serratiopeptidase in development of co-delivery of multifunctional nanoparticles with anti-cancer properties introduction.

Pulmonary delivery of synergistic combination of fluoroquinolone antibiotic complemented with proteolytic enzyme: A novel antimicrobial and antibiofilm strategy.

Bacterial resistance remains a major hindrance in treatment with antimicrobial agents. Therefore, we assessed the improved antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of Levofloxacin (LFX) and Serratiopeptidase (SRP) combinations in in vitro microbiological studies. Further, pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies of liposomal LFX in combination with SRP (LFX liposome-SRP) were performed in S. aureus infected rats. LFX at sub-MIC with SRP eradicated >90% of the preformed biofilm. The entrapment efficiency of LFX in liposome was >80% and the co-spray dried product had MMAD <5 µm. We observed high LFX concentration in the lung (3.39 µg/ml over 3 h) and AUC/MIC ≥100. In a pharmacodynamic study, untreated infected rat lungs demonstrated higher mRNA expression for inflammatory markers, cytokine levels and microbial load compared to control. Conversely, LFX liposome-SRP significantly abated these adverse repercussions. Histological findings were also in agreement with these observations. Furthermore, our findings corroborate exhibited improved antibiofilm and antimicrobial efficacy of LFX liposome-SRP in treating S. aureus infection.

Serratiopeptidase loaded chitosan nanoparticles by polyelectrolyte complexation: in vitro and in vivo evaluation.

The aim of the present study was to formulate serratiopeptidase (SER)-loaded chitosan (CS) nanoparticles for oral delivery. SER is a proteolytic enzyme which is very sensitive to change in temperature and pH. SER-loaded CS nanoparticles were fabricated by ionic gelation method using tripolyphosphate (TPP). Nanoparticles were characterized for its particle size, morphology, entrapment efficiency, loading efficiency, percent recovery, and in vitro dissolution study. SER-CS nanoparticles had a particle size in the range of 400-600 nm with polydispersity index below 0.5. SER association was up to 80 ± 4.2%. SER loading and CS/TPP mass ratio were the primary parameters having direct influence on SER-CS nanoparticles. SER-CS nanoparticles were freeze dried using trehalose (20%) as a cryoprotectant. In vitro dissolution showed initial burst followed by sustained release up to 24 h. In vivo anti-inflammatory activity was carried out in rat paw edema model. In vivo anti-inflammatory activity in rat paw edema showed prolonged anti-inflammatory effect up to 32 h relative to plain SER.

Vitreous levels of active ocriplasmin following intravitreal injection: results of an ascending exposure trial.

PURPOSE: To characterize the levels of active ocriplasmin over a period of ascending time points (range, 5 minutes to 7 days) from intravitreal injection of a 125-µg dose to sampling. METHODS: During this 7-week controlled, open-label, phase 2 study, a single intravitreal (125 µg) dose of ocriplasmin was injected into the midvitreous of one eye of each of 34 patients prior to their scheduled primary pars plana vitrectomy. Patients were allocated to vitreous sampling at the beginning of the surgery, which occurred 5 to 30 minutes, 31 to 60 minutes, 2 to 4 hours, 24 ± 2 hours, or 7 ± 1 days after ocriplasmin injection, or to the control group, who received no ocriplasmin injection. RESULTS: With increasing time from ocriplasmin injection to vitreous sampling, mean active ocriplasmin concentration decreased. While at 5 to 30 minutes postinjection, mean active ocriplasmin concentration was 11,597.7 ng/mL, within 31 to 60 minutes from injection the mean active ocriplasmin concentration had reduced to 8108.7 ng/mL; and by 24 hours after injection, half of the patients (2/4) had active ocriplasmin concentrations below the lower limit of quantification (LLQ; <272.4 ng/mL), as did all samples from the day 7 and control groups. No ocular serious adverse events (SAEs) were reported in patients who received ocriplasmin, while three ocular SAEs occurred in the study eye of one patient in the control group (1/38; 2.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Active ocriplasmin concentrations in vitreous samples decreased with increasing time from injection to sample, with enzyme levels in all of the patients in the day 7 group being comparable to those in the control group. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01159665.).

Target-directed catalytic metallodrugs.

Most drugs function by binding reversibly to specific biological targets, and therapeutic effects generally require saturation of these targets. One means of decreasing required drug concentrations is incorporation of reactive metal centers that elicit irreversible modification of targets. A common approach has been the design of artificial proteases/nucleases containing metal centers capable of hydrolyzing targeted proteins or nucleic acids. However, these hydrolytic catalysts typically provide relatively low rate constants for target inactivation. Recently, various catalysts were synthesized that use oxidative mechanisms to selectively cleave/inactivate therapeutic targets, including HIV RRE RNA or angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). These oxidative mechanisms, which typically involve reactive oxygen species (ROS), provide access to comparatively high rate constants for target inactivation. Target-binding affinity, co-reactant selectivity, reduction potential, coordination unsaturation, ROS products (metal-associated vs metal-dissociated; hydroxyl vs superoxide), and multiple-turnover redox chemistry were studied for each catalyst, and these parameters were related to the efficiency, selectivity, and mechanism(s) of inactivation/cleavage of the corresponding target for each catalyst. Important factors for future oxidative catalyst development are 1) positioning of catalyst reduction potential and redox reactivity to match the physiological environment of use, 2) maintenance of catalyst stability by use of chelates with either high denticity or other means of stabilization, such as the square planar geometric stabilization of Ni- and Cu-ATCUN complexes, 3) optimal rate of inactivation of targets relative to the rate of generation of diffusible ROS, 4) targeting and linker domains that afford better control of catalyst orientation, and 5) general bio-availability and drug delivery requirements.

Preparation, characterization and targeted delivery of serratiopeptidase immobilized on amino-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles.

Targeted delivery of serratiopeptidase enzyme immobilized on magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) of Fe3O4 has been reported for the treatment using this enzyme. The enzyme was immobilized by covalent bonding through glutaraldehyde after amino functionalization of MNPs and parameters was studied. The enzyme bound MNPs (EMNPs) were characterized for size, crystallographic identity, phase purity, zeta potential and magnetic properties along with elemental and thermal analysis. The binding of enzyme had little effect on sizes (~10-17 nm) and on magnetic properties, but the zeta potential increased from -25 mV to +14.5 mV with surface amino groups up to 350 µmoles g(-1) MNPs, to stabilize its suspensions. In the molecular level, maximum of 17 molecules of enzyme could bind to each particle of MNPs that showed residual activity 67%, decreased KM and Vmax, good storage stability. Magnetic targeting of EMNPs increased the delivery (permeation) of drug through the membrane in in vitro study and enhanced the anti-inflammatory effect on carrageenan induced paw oedema in rats in in vivo study at much lower doses of enzyme than the doses required for treatment with free enzyme.

Target-directed catalytic metallodrugs

Most drugs function by binding reversibly to specific biological targets, and therapeutic effects generally require saturation of these targets. One means of decreasing required drug concentrations is incorporation of reactive metal centers that elicit irreversible modification of targets. A common approach has been the design of artificial proteases/nucleases containing metal centers capable of hydrolyzing targeted proteins or nucleic acids. However, these hydrolytic catalysts typically provide relatively low rate constants for target inactivation. Recently, various catalysts were synthesized that use oxidative mechanisms to selectively cleave/inactivate therapeutic targets, including HIV RRE RNA or angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). These oxidative mechanisms, which typically involve reactive oxygen species (ROS), provide access to comparatively high rate constants for target inactivation. Target-binding affinity, co-reactant selectivity, reduction potential, coordination unsaturation, ROS products (metal-associated vs metal-dissociated; hydroxyl vs superoxide), and multiple-turnover redox chemistry were studied for each catalyst, and these parameters were related to the efficiency, selectivity, and mechanism(s) of inactivation/cleavage of the corresponding target for each catalyst. Important factors for future oxidative catalyst development are 1) positioning of catalyst reduction potential and redox reactivity to match the physiological environment of use, 2) maintenance of catalyst stability by use of chelates with either high denticity or other means of stabilization, such as the square planar geometric stabilization of Ni- and Cu-ATCUN complexes, 3) optimal rate of inactivation of targets relative to the rate of generation of diffusible ROS, 4) targeting and linker domains that afford better control of catalyst orientation, and 5) general bio-availability and drug delivery requirements.

Plaqueta: fisiología de la activación y la inhibición / Platelets: the physiology of activation and inhibition

Las plaquetas tienen un papel fundamental tanto en la hemostasia como en la patogenia de la aterotrombosis. Después de producirse la rotura de la placa de ateroma, diferentes proteínas se expresan en la plaqueta que interviene tanto en la unión de la plaqueta a la pared vascular dañada como en la interacción con nuevas plaquetas y otras células sanguíneas para formar el trombo final. Diferentes agonistas, entre ellos el difosfato de adenosina, el tromboxano A2 y la trombina, se sintetizan y se liberan para llamar a más plaquetas a formar parte del trombo. Además, diferentes inhibidores endógenos de las plaquetas tratan de formar los agonistas plaquetarios anteriormente mencionados. Las plaquetas jóvenes y las micropartículas derivadas de las plaquetas también participan en la formación del trombo. Este artículo trata de revisar los mecanismos fisiológicos implicados en la activación y la inactivación plaquetarias (AU)

Platelets play a fundamental role in both hemostasis and the pathogenesis of atherothrombosis. After rupture of an atheromatous plaque, platelets express a number of adhesive proteins that influence both platelet adhesion at the damaged vessel wall and interactions with new platelets and other blood cells, all of which eventually result in clot formation. Several agonist, including adenosine diphosphate, thromboxane A2 and thrombin, are then synthesized and released to attract additional platelets to form part of the clot. Moreover, various endogenous platelet inhibitors act against the above-mentioned platelet agonists. In addition, young platelets and platelet-derived microparticles also participate in clot formation. This article provides an overview of the physiological mechanisms involved in platelet activation and antiplatelet processes (AU)

Antithrombotic and thrombolytic effects of a new proteolytic preparation Trombovazim (Russia).

We studied the antithrombotic and thrombolytic effects of Trombovazim, a highly-purified proteolytic enzyme preparation obtained by immobilization of bacterial proteinases (Bacillus) on polyethylene oxide with a molecular weight of 1.5 kDa. Blood absorption of the preparation was evaluated after intragastric administration. In vitro experiments showed that Trombovazim produces anticoagulant and thrombolytic effects, which manifested in inhibition of fibrin clot formation and acceleration of its lysis. Drug concentration in the blood was elevated from the 4th to the 7th hour after intragastric administration of Trombovazim in a dose of 2250 U/kg, being maximum by the 5th hour (0.044+/-0.011 U/ml). Course treatment with Trombovazim (1000 U intragastrically, twice daily for 3 days) had a thrombolytic effect on rats with experimental intravascular thrombosis. This effect was manifested in a decrease in thrombus weight and increase in the percent of rats with recanalization of the occluded carotid artery.

Novel solubility-switchable MRI agent allows the noninvasive detection of matrix metalloproteinase-2 activity in vivo in a mouse model.

A novel MRI proteinase-modulated contrast agent (PCA) was developed to detect the activity of the proinvasive enzyme matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in vivo. The PCA2-switch agent incorporates a solubility switch, where cleavage of a peptide substrate by MMP-2 decreases the water solubility of the agent. Evidence suggests that this leads to an accumulation of cleaved PCA2-switch in an MMP-2-positive, wild-type, MC7-L1 mammary carcinoma tumor in a Balb/c mouse model compared to a MC7-L1 MMP-2-knockdown tumor. When a scrambled peptide sequence is inserted into the agent (PCA2-scrambled), the in vitro cleavage efficiency of MMP-2 is markedly reduced. In vivo, PCA2-scrambled does not accumulate in the wild-type tumor and the pharmacokinetics is similar in both tumors. In conclusion, in vivo cleavage of PCA2-switch by MMP-2 results in a significant accumulation of the cleaved PCA2-switch in an MMP-2-positive tumor.

Liposomal formulations of serratiopeptidase: in vitro studies using PAMPA and Caco-2 models.

The feasibility of using liposomes as a potential oral delivery system for the systemic delivery of other peptides and protein-based pharmaceuticals has been studied. Serratiopeptidase, a proteolytic enzyme, was used as a model drug. Liposomes were prepared by a thin film hydration method using various lipids, namely, soya lecithin, DMPC and DMPE. It was further investigated whether the liposomal formulations of serratiopeptidase altered the permeability/absorption of the drug using PAMPA, a non-cell-based assay, and Caco-2 assay, a cell monolayer system, mimicking in vivo GI epithelium cells. The entrapment efficiency of the formulations was found to be 62%, 84% and 86% for the liposomes of soya lecithin, DMPC and DMPE respectively. The effectiveness of the liposomal formulations against the pure drug in terms of permeability/absorption was compared. The effective permeability (log Pe) values from PAMPA study varied from -7.47 to -6.5 cm/s whereas for the serratiopeptidase it was -7.72 cm/s. The apparent permeability values calculated from Caco-2 assay varied from 1.25 x 10(-6) to 1.61 x 10(-6) cm/s whereas for the serratiopeptidase it was 1.25 x 10(-6) cm/s. The flux was found to be 3.88-4.96 microg/cm (2)/h for the formulations when compared to 3.208 microg/cm(2)/h for serratiopeptidase. The results obtained indicated that in comparison with the pure drug, incorporation of drug into liposomes improved the permeability. Thus it could be concluded that the liposomal formulations would improve the oral absorption of serratiopeptidase.

Enzyme content and acid stability of enteric-coated pancreatic enzyme products in vitro.

OBJECTIVES: Pancreatic enzymes are prescribed routinely for pancreatic insufficiency. In the current health care environment, drug substitution is commonly performed although there is no proof of therapeutic or bioequivalence for these products. The purpose of this in vitro, prospective study was to evaluate the enzyme contents and dissolution of various capsules of pancreatic enzyme using current United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) methodology. METHODS: Nine different pancreatic enzyme products were purchased on the market and supplied to Irvine Analytical Laboratories (IAL) (Irvine, CA). All test products were maintained in the laboratory environment, at room temperature, throughout the testing period by IAL. USP procedures for assay and dissolution testing of pancrelipase delayed-release capsules, as described in the latest USP supplement were observed during product testing, including determination of amylase, lipase, and protease activity. In addition, a point assay with measurement of lipase after dissolution in simulated gastric fluid pH of 1.0 for 1 hour and then dissolution in pH 6 phosphate buffer for 30 minutes performed in accordance with USP guidelines. RESULTS: Assay results of amylase, protease, and lipase from the 9 tested products are within USP specified limits. The percentage of label claim for these enzymes was higher than depicted in their label except for one drug batch. However, the percentage of lipase activity after dissolution varied with 2 of 3 batches of 1 drug not dissolving, and 1 batch of another drug, revealing only 8% lipase activity in the USP dissolution test. CONCLUSION: While assay of pancreatic enzymes reveal they were equal to their USP claims regarding their enzyme content, not all pancreatic enzyme replacements are equal in their release of lipase activity according to USP requirements. The findings maybe clinically seen with therapeutic failures of enzyme products. The FDA has recently decreed that all pancreatic enzyme products will require an approved NDA as differences in pharmaceutical quality have been identified in this product. Thus, it is considered that substitution of these products maybe questionable. Things are seldom what they seem- not all pancreatic enzyme replacements are equal. Further studies are warranted to investigate dissolution characteristics.

Biología molecular del proceso metastásico del cáncer colorrectal / Molecular biology of the metastatic process of colorectal cancer

Introducción. La presencia de micrometástasis en el cáncer colorrectal en el momento del diagnóstico permite que, a pesar de un tratamiento quirúrgico aparentemente efectivo en estadios precoces del proceso neoplásico, un porcentaje significativo de estos enfermos presenten posteriormente una enfermedad neoplásica a distancia incurable. El proceso metastásico en el cáncer colorrectal se desarrolla mediante la sucesión de una serie de etapas, siendo el resultado final de un proceso multiescalonado definido como "cascada metastásica". El conocimiento profundo de cada una de estas etapas y los factores que van a intervenir en ellas nos permitirá seleccionar aquellas neoplasias de mayor agresividad para poder adoptar nuevas alternativas terapéuticas. Material y método. Se realiza una exhaustiva revisión del proceso metastásico del cáncer colorrectal a través de la base de datos bibliograficos MEDLINE, para conocer el verdadero valor como marcadores pronóstico de las moléculas implicadas en dicho proceso, así como las nuevas terapias aparecidas mediante la actuación sobre estas moléculas. Resultados y conclusiones. El perfil molecular humano en el cáncer colorrectal de gran agresividad y poder metastásico incluiría la expresión y sobreexpresión de proteínas debido a la alteración de los genes p53, K-ras, DCC y nm23, junto a elevación de enzimas proteolíticas (metaloproteinasas 2,9 y catepsina B), moléculas de adhesión, y un elevado índice angiogénico expresado por el aumento del factor de crecimiento del endotelio vascular y elevada densidad de microvasos. Sobre estos factores actuarían nuevas terapias, como la genética y antiangiogénica, aunque actualmente en estadios iniciales, que son motivo de controversia (AU)

Significación biológica y clínica de las enzimas proteolíticas y sus inhibidores en los carcinomas humanos / Biological and clinical significance of proteolytic enzymes and their inhibitors in human carcinomas

Las enzimas proteolíticas han adquirido recientemente un gran interés en fisiopatología tumoral debido a su papel potencial en la degradación de los componentes principales de la matriz extracelular y membrana basal facilitando, de esa forma, la invasión tumoral y las metástasis. Las enzimas proteolíticas que son expresadas por los carcinomas humanos se agrupan en cuatro grandes familias: metaloproteinasas, aspartil-proteinasas, cisteín-proteinasas y serín-proteinasas. La expresión tumoral de la mayoría de estas enzimas ha sido asociada con un comportamiento más agresivo de los carcinomas humanos y un pronóstico desfavorable de los pacientes. Sin embargo, su expresión tumoral no siempre implica un pronóstico adverso, ya que enzimas como el activador tisular del plasminógeno, el antígeno prostático específico y el pepsinógeno C han sido asociadas con un pronóstico favorable en pacientes con cáncer de mama. Además, existen datos que sugieren que estas expresiones tumorales pueden estar rela cionadas con una vía específica de respuesta hormonal, lo que resulta demostrativo del complejo papel que pueden desempeñar las enzimas proteolíticas en la fisiopatología tumoral. Por otra parte, el resultado final de la acción de las enzimas pro teolíticas dependerá en gran medida del balance con sus inhibidores naturales, producidos por las propias células tumorales para coordinar su acción invasiva, o bien por las células estromales como mecanismo de defensa ante la progresión tumoral. Finalmente, existen datos recientes que indican que la utilización de inhibidores sintéticos de las enzimas proteolíticas puede representar una nueva y prometedora alternativa terapéutica para los carcinomas humanos (AU)

La proteólisis en la invasión y metástasis de la célula tumoral / Proteolysis in the invasion and metastases of the tumoral cell

En los últimos veinte años, ha habido considerable interés en comprender exactamente cuáles moléculas están involucradas en la patofisiología de la diseminación tumoral. Los resultados acumulados en ese tiempo indican que la propagación metastática del tumor representa la culminación de cambios malignos adquiridos durante la tumorigénesis. Uno de los hallazgos, que ha sido constante en esas observaciones, es la participación de las enzimas proteolíticas en los procesos de invasión y metástasis. En la actualidad se sabe que, para que la célula tumoral inicie la invasión del tejido adyacente y dé lugar a la metástasis, es necesaria toda una cascada de reacciones proteolíticas, en la cual participan serina, thiol y metaloproteasas. Se ha observado que algunas de esas enzimas proteolíticas se encuentran circulando, mientras que otras son sintetizadas y secretadas por las mismas células tumorales. También se sabe que existen varios inhibidores específicos de cada una de las familias de proteasas que pueden limitar la degradación de la matriz, y con esto inhibir la propagación tumoral. Este artículo resume una serie de evidencias relacionadas con la diseminación tumoral, observadas en modelos experimentales in vitro e in vivo, así como en diferentes cánceres que afectan al hombre, y hace énfasis en el papel de la proteólisis en la invasión y metástasis del cáncer.

Pharmacologic modulation of thrombin generation associated with human clots by human purified antithrombin alone or in the presence of low molecular weight heparin or unfractionated heparin.

Procoagulant activities associated with human clots may contribute to thrombus extension. We investigate the inhibition of clot-associated factor Xa and thrombin activities by purified human antithrombin either alone or as combination with a low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin) as compared with unfractionated heparin (UFH). The standard clots were prepared by recalcification of frozen platelet-poor human plasma. Clot-associated thrombin was measured on the clot after clot incubation in recalcified buffer or recalcified prothrombin solution. The enzymatic reaction was measured using a specific substrate for thrombin (CBS 3447). The thrombin concentration was determined both on the clots and in the reaction mixtures. In parallel, prothrombin fragment 1.2 and thrombin-antithrombin complexes (TAT) were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods. We demonstrated that in the presence of purified human prothrombin and antithrombin (AT), a partial inhibition of clot associated thrombin activity correlated with an increase of TAT complexes. However, antithrombin was unable to inhibit thrombin generation induced by the clot-associated factor Xa. Enoxaparin (low molecular weight heparin) and UFH did not enhance clot-bound thrombin inhibition induced by AT. We conclude that clot-bound thrombin is accessible to human antithrombin alone. AT is also able to inhibit thrombin generated by factor Xa-associated clot. However, neither a low molecular weight heparin or UFH enhanced the effect of AT alone.

Intestinal absorption of serrapeptase (TSP) in rats.

A sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay (e.i.a.) for serrapeptase (TSP), an orally available anti-inflammatory proteinase, was established using affinity-purified anti-TSP rabbit IgG and its Fab' fragment conjugated with horseradish peroxidase as the first and the second antibodies respectively. TSP in the plasma was determined by the e.i.a. after its oral administration (100 mg/kg) to rats. The peak concentration was observed between 30 min and 2 h after administration. TSP in the plasma samples was trapped on a microtitre plate coated with the affinity-purified anti-TSP rabbit IgG, and the hydrolysis of a synthetic fluorogenic substrate, butoxycarbonyl-Glu(benzyloxy)-Ala-Arg-4-methylcoumaryl-7-amide, by the trapped TSP was fluorometrically measured (proteinase assay). The values obtained by the e.i.a. and those obtained by the proteinase assay correlated well for various plasma samples. These results indicate that orally administered TSP was absorbed from the intestinal tract and transferred into the circulation in an enzymically active form.